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Kings, Farmers and Towns – Class 12 History notes, important questions and MCQs

NCERT Class 12 History, chapter 2. Notes, key terms, important questions with answers and MCQs.

Chapter overview

Between about 600 BCE and 600 CE, early states and empires developed in the Indian subcontinent. Sixteen mahajanapadas emerged in the sixth century BCE, and Magadha became the most powerful, leading to the Mauryan empire. Inscriptions, especially those of Ashoka, are important sources; James Prinsep deciphered the Brahmi script in 1838. Agriculture expanded with iron tools and irrigation, towns and trade grew, and coins came into use.

Mahajanapadas and Magadha

Sixteen mahajanapadas, such as Magadha, Kosala, Vajji, Kuru, Panchala, Gandhara and Avanti, are mentioned in Buddhist and Jaina texts; most were ruled by kings, while some, such as Vajji, were ganas or sanghas.
Magadha became powerful because of fertile land, iron mines, elephants for the army, rivers for communication and ambitious rulers such as Bimbisara, Ajatasattu and Mahapadma Nanda.
Rajagaha and later Pataliputra were capitals of Magadha.

The Mauryan empire

Chandragupta Maurya founded the empire around 321 BCE; Ashoka, his grandson, is known for his inscriptions and policy of dhamma.
Sources include Megasthenes' Indica, Kautilya's Arthashastra, Buddhist and Jaina texts and inscriptions on rocks and pillars.
The empire had five major political centres, including Pataliputra, Taxila, Ujjayini, Tosali and Suvarnagiri, and a large army and administration.

Agriculture, towns and coins

The use of iron ploughshares and transplantation of paddy increased production; irrigation through wells, tanks and canals expanded.
Land grants to Brahmanas and religious institutions, recorded in inscriptions, began in the early centuries CE.
Punch-marked coins of silver and copper were the earliest coins; the Indo-Greeks issued coins with rulers' images, the Kushanas issued gold coins, and Gupta gold coins were remarkable.

Key terms

Mahajanapada: one of the sixteen large states of the sixth century BCE
Epigraphy: the study of inscriptions
Dhamma: Ashoka's moral code for his subjects
Punch-marked coins: the earliest coins of India, with symbols punched on silver or copper
Agrahara: land granted to Brahmanas, usually exempt from taxes

Important questions with answers

What was Ashoka's dhamma?2 marks

Ashoka's dhamma was a set of moral principles he promoted among his subjects, including respect for elders, kindness to slaves and servants, generosity to Brahmanas and Shramanas, tolerance of all sects and non-violence towards living beings. He appointed dhamma mahamattas to spread it.

Why did Magadha become the most powerful mahajanapada?3 marks

Magadha had fertile agricultural land, access to iron mines for tools and weapons, forests that provided elephants for the army, and the Ganga and its tributaries for cheap transport. Ambitious rulers such as Bimbisara, Ajatasattu and Mahapadma Nanda pursued expansionist policies, and its capitals Rajagaha and Pataliputra were well protected.

Describe the changes in agriculture, towns and trade between 600 BCE and 600 CE.5 marks

Between 600 BCE and 600 CE major economic changes took place. Agriculture expanded as iron ploughshares were used in fertile alluvial areas, and the transplantation of paddy increased yields, especially in the Ganga valley. Irrigation through wells, tanks and canals spread, and kings and communities built irrigation works. Land grants to Brahmanas and religious institutions, recorded in inscriptions, extended cultivation into new areas and created links between rulers and rural elites. Differences increased among peasants, with landless labourers, small peasants and large landholders called gahapatis in some texts. Towns grew, often along routes of trade and communication, and many were capitals of mahajanapadas, such as Pataliputra, Ujjayini and Taxila. Towns had craftspeople, merchants, guilds called shrenis, and markets. Trade within the subcontinent and with Central Asia, West Asia and the Roman world expanded, with exports of spices, textiles and precious stones. Coins became important: punch-marked coins of silver and copper were the earliest, followed by Indo-Greek coins with rulers' images, gold coins of the Kushanas and fine gold coins of the Guptas. These changes show a growing and increasingly complex economy.

Quick revision

Sixteen mahajanapadas; rise of Magadha.
Mauryas: Chandragupta, Ashoka; sources.
Iron, transplantation, irrigation.
Punch-marked, Kushana and Gupta coins; land grants.

Exam tips

Remember why Magadha became powerful: land, iron, elephants, rivers, rulers.
James Prinsep deciphered Brahmi in 1838.

Practice MCQs

The number of mahajanapadas mentioned in texts is
1. 6
2. 16
3. 26
4. 60
Show answer
Answer: (b) 16. They emerged in the sixth century BCE.
The founder of the Mauryan empire was
1. Ashoka
2. Bimbisara
3. Bindusara
4. Chandragupta Maurya
Show answer
Answer: (d) Chandragupta Maurya. He founded it around 321 BCE.
The study of inscriptions is called
1. numismatics
2. anthropology
3. archaeology
4. epigraphy
Show answer
Answer: (d) epigraphy. Inscriptions are a major source.
The Brahmi script was deciphered in 1838 by
1. Alexander Cunningham
2. James Prinsep
3. John Marshall
4. William Jones
Show answer
Answer: (b) James Prinsep. He read Ashokan inscriptions.
The author of Indica was
1. Megasthenes
2. Kautilya
3. Fa Xian
4. Pliny
Show answer
Answer: (a) Megasthenes. He was a Greek ambassador.
The earliest coins of India were
1. gold dinars
2. punch-marked coins
3. paper notes
4. cowries only
Show answer
Answer: (b) punch-marked coins. They were of silver and copper.
Which factor helped Magadha become the most powerful mahajanapada
1. lack of resources
2. absence of rivers
3. fertile land, iron mines and elephants
4. peaceful rulers only
Show answer
Answer: (c) fertile land, iron mines and elephants. Resources and ambitious rulers mattered.
Land grants to Brahmanas recorded in inscriptions show
1. the end of agriculture
2. the spread of agriculture and state relations with rural elites
3. abolition of taxes everywhere
4. the decline of kingship
Show answer
Answer: (b) the spread of agriculture and state relations with rural elites. They extended cultivation and authority.

All chapters of Class 12 History

Written by Kundali IQ from standard, well-established facts to help with revision. This is not an official NCERT publication; always read your textbook too.