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Bricks, Beads and Bones: The Harappan Civilisation – Class 12 History notes, important questions and MCQs

NCERT Class 12 History, chapter 1. Notes, key terms, important questions with answers and MCQs.

Chapter overview

The Harappan civilisation, also called the Indus Valley civilisation, flourished in its mature phase from about 2600 to 1900 BCE in present-day Pakistan and north-western India. It is known for planned cities, standardised weights, seals, craft production and long-distance trade. The script has not been deciphered. Archaeologists reconstruct its history from material remains, and the civilisation declined gradually after about 1900 BCE.

Cities and settlements

Major sites include Harappa, Mohenjodaro, Dholavira, Lothal, Kalibangan, Rakhigarhi and Banawali.
Mohenjodaro was divided into a Citadel, with structures such as the Great Bath and the warehouse, and a Lower Town with residential buildings.
Cities had grid-pattern streets, standardised burnt bricks, and an elaborate covered drainage system.

Economy and crafts

People grew wheat, barley, lentils, chickpea and sesame, and reared cattle, sheep and goats; ploughs are known from terracotta models and a ploughed field at Kalibangan.
Craft production included bead making (carnelian, jasper, steatite), shell cutting, metal working and seal making; Chanhudaro was almost entirely devoted to crafts.
Raw materials came from distant regions; trade reached Oman, Bahrain (Dilmun) and Mesopotamia, which mentions a region called Meluhha.

Seals, script, authority and decline

Seals of steatite carried animal motifs and signs, and were used in trade; the script was written from right to left and remains undeciphered.
Standardised weights of chert, often cubical, suggest regulation, but archaeologists debate whether there were kings or priests.
After about 1900 BCE many cities were abandoned; possible causes include climate change, deforestation, floods, shifting rivers and the collapse of a unifying authority.

Key terms

Mature Harappan: the urban phase of the civilisation, c. 2600–1900 BCE
Citadel: the raised, walled part of a Harappan city with special structures
Great Bath: a large tank at Mohenjodaro, probably used for ritual bathing
Seal: a carved stone object used to stamp goods, usually of steatite
Meluhha: the name used in Mesopotamian texts, probably for the Harappan region

Important questions with answers

What was the Citadel in Harappan cities?2 marks

The Citadel was the smaller, higher, walled part of a Harappan city, built on mud-brick platforms. At Mohenjodaro it contained special public structures such as the Great Bath and the warehouse.

Describe the drainage system of Harappan cities.3 marks

Harappan cities had a planned drainage system. Streets were laid out on a grid, and drains were built along them, covered with bricks or stone slabs. Household drains were connected to street drains, and inspection holes and sumps were provided for cleaning. This shows careful planning and concern for sanitation.

Describe the main features of the Harappan civilisation.5 marks

The Harappan civilisation flourished in its mature phase from about 2600 to 1900 BCE across a large area of present-day Pakistan and north-western India, with sites such as Harappa, Mohenjodaro, Dholavira, Lothal, Kalibangan and Rakhigarhi. Its cities were planned: Mohenjodaro had a Citadel with the Great Bath and warehouse and a Lower Town with houses built of standardised burnt bricks, streets on a grid pattern and an elaborate covered drainage system. The economy was based on agriculture, with wheat, barley, pulses and sesame, the use of the plough and irrigation, and the rearing of animals. Craft production was highly developed, including bead making from carnelian and other stones, shell working, metal working and the making of seals; Chanhudaro was a craft centre. Raw materials were obtained from distant areas, and trade reached Oman, Bahrain and Mesopotamia, where the region was probably known as Meluhha. Seals with animal motifs and signs, standardised weights and uniform pottery and bricks suggest a system of regulation, though the nature of political authority is debated. The script, written from right to left, has not been deciphered. From about 1900 BCE the cities declined gradually, possibly because of climate change, floods, shifting rivers, overuse of resources and the breakdown of a unifying authority.

Quick revision

Mature phase c. 2600–1900 BCE.
Planned cities, burnt bricks, drains.
Crafts, beads, seals; trade with Mesopotamia.
Undeciphered script; gradual decline.

Exam tips

Draw a simple plan of Mohenjodaro showing the Citadel and Lower Town.
Learn one feature each of Lothal, Kalibangan, Dholavira and Chanhudaro.

Practice MCQs

The Great Bath was found at
1. Harappa
2. Lothal
3. Mohenjodaro
4. Kalibangan
Show answer
Answer: (c) Mohenjodaro. It was in the Citadel.
Most Harappan seals were made of
1. steatite
2. gold
3. iron
4. wood
Show answer
Answer: (a) steatite. Steatite is a soft stone.
The Harappan script
1. has been fully deciphered
2. has not been deciphered
3. is the same as Brahmi
4. used the Roman alphabet
Show answer
Answer: (b) has not been deciphered. It remains a puzzle.
The mature Harappan phase dates to about
1. 6000–4000 BCE
2. 2600–1900 BCE
3. 1500–1000 BCE
4. 600–300 BCE
Show answer
Answer: (b) 2600–1900 BCE. This was the urban phase.
The Harappan site devoted almost entirely to craft production was
1. Mohenjodaro
2. Banawali
3. Rakhigarhi
4. Chanhudaro
Show answer
Answer: (d) Chanhudaro. Beads and seals were made there.
Evidence of a ploughed field has been found at
1. Lothal
2. Dholavira
3. Kalibangan
4. Harappa
Show answer
Answer: (c) Kalibangan. It is in Rajasthan.
The name Meluhha in Mesopotamian texts suggests
1. no trade with the Harappans
2. trade contacts between Mesopotamia and the Harappan region
3. Harappans ruled Mesopotamia
4. a Harappan king's name
Show answer
Answer: (b) trade contacts between Mesopotamia and the Harappan region. It probably refers to the Harappan region.
Which is a likely cause of the Harappan decline
1. a combination of environmental change and collapse of unifying authority
2. invasion by Alexander
3. the arrival of the British
4. the discovery of iron alone
Show answer
Answer: (a) a combination of environmental change and collapse of unifying authority. Several factors are suggested.

All chapters of Class 12 History

Written by Kundali IQ from standard, well-established facts to help with revision. This is not an official NCERT publication; always read your textbook too.