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Learning – Class 11 Psychology notes, important questions and MCQs

NCERT Class 11 Psychology, chapter 6. Notes, key terms, important questions with answers and MCQs.

Chapter overview

Learning is a relatively permanent change in behaviour or behavioural potential that results from experience or practice. Changes due to maturation, fatigue, drugs or injury are not learning. Major forms of learning include classical conditioning, operant conditioning, observational learning, cognitive learning, verbal learning and skill learning. Factors such as reinforcement, motivation and learning styles affect learning, and some children have learning disabilities.

Conditioning

Classical conditioning (Ivan Pavlov): a neutral stimulus (bell) paired with an unconditioned stimulus (food) comes to produce a conditioned response (salivation); key processes are acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalisation and discrimination.
Operant conditioning (B. F. Skinner): behaviour is shaped by its consequences; positive reinforcement adds a pleasant stimulus, negative reinforcement removes an unpleasant one, and punishment decreases behaviour.
Schedules of reinforcement may be continuous or partial (fixed ratio, variable ratio, fixed interval, variable interval); partial reinforcement makes behaviour more resistant to extinction. Shaping reinforces successive approximations.

Other forms and factors

Observational learning (Albert Bandura's Bobo doll study): people learn by watching models and the consequences of their actions.
Cognitive learning includes insight learning (Wolfgang Köhler's chimpanzee Sultan suddenly solving a problem) and latent learning (Edward Tolman's rats learning a maze without reward, forming cognitive maps).
Verbal learning is studied with paired-associates, serial and free recall methods; skill learning passes through cognitive, associative and autonomous phases. Learning disabilities include difficulties in reading (dyslexia), writing and arithmetic, not due to low intelligence.

Key terms

Learning: a relatively permanent change in behaviour due to experience
Classical conditioning: learning by association between two stimuli
Operant conditioning: learning through consequences of behaviour
Reinforcement: a consequence that increases the likelihood of a behaviour
Observational learning: learning by watching others

Important questions with answers

Define learning.2 marks

Learning is a relatively permanent change in behaviour or behavioural potential that occurs as a result of experience or practice. Changes due to maturation, fatigue, illness or drugs are not considered learning.

Distinguish between classical and operant conditioning.3 marks

In classical conditioning, learning occurs through association between two stimuli, and the response is involuntary, such as salivation (Pavlov). In operant conditioning, learning occurs through the consequences of voluntary behaviour, which is strengthened by reinforcement or weakened by punishment (Skinner).

Explain classical conditioning and its key processes.5 marks

Classical conditioning was discovered by the Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov while studying digestion in dogs. He noticed that dogs salivated not only when food was placed in their mouths but also at the sight of the attendant who brought food. In his experiment, food was the unconditioned stimulus (US), which naturally produced salivation, the unconditioned response (UR). A bell, initially a neutral stimulus, was sounded just before food was presented. After several pairings, the bell alone produced salivation; the bell became the conditioned stimulus (CS) and salivation to it the conditioned response (CR). The key processes are as follows. Acquisition is the stage in which the association is formed; it is strongest when the CS comes slightly before the US (forward conditioning). Extinction occurs when the CS is presented repeatedly without the US, so the CR gradually disappears. Spontaneous recovery is the reappearance of the extinguished CR after a rest period. Stimulus generalisation means responding to stimuli similar to the CS, such as a bell of a different tone, while discrimination means learning to respond only to the specific CS. Classical conditioning explains many emotional responses, such as fears and phobias, as in Watson's study of Little Albert, and is used in therapy, for example in systematic desensitisation, and in advertising.

Quick revision

Definition and features of learning.
Classical conditioning processes.
Operant conditioning and reinforcement schedules.
Observational, cognitive, verbal and skill learning; learning disabilities.

Exam tips

Do not confuse negative reinforcement (increases behaviour) with punishment (decreases behaviour).
Remember the scientists: Pavlov (dogs), Skinner (box), Köhler (Sultan), Tolman (maze), Bandura (Bobo doll).

Practice MCQs

Classical conditioning was demonstrated by
1. Ivan Pavlov
2. B. F. Skinner
3. Albert Bandura
4. Wolfgang Köhler
Show answer
Answer: (a) Ivan Pavlov. He used dogs.
Learning by watching others is called
1. observational learning
2. insight learning
3. latent learning
4. verbal learning
Show answer
Answer: (a) observational learning. Bandura studied it.
A consequence that increases the likelihood of behaviour is
1. punishment
2. generalisation
3. extinction
4. reinforcement
Show answer
Answer: (d) reinforcement. It strengthens the response.
The gradual disappearance of a conditioned response when it is no longer reinforced is
1. generalisation
2. extinction
3. discrimination
4. shaping
Show answer
Answer: (b) extinction. The CS appears without the US.
Insight learning was demonstrated with the chimpanzee Sultan by
1. Pavlov
2. Tolman
3. Köhler
4. Watson
Show answer
Answer: (c) Köhler. The solution came suddenly.
Learning that occurs but is not shown until there is an incentive is
1. latent learning
2. insight learning
3. classical conditioning
4. skill learning
Show answer
Answer: (a) latent learning. Tolman's rats formed cognitive maps.
Removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase a behaviour is called
1. punishment
2. extinction
3. positive reinforcement
4. negative reinforcement
Show answer
Answer: (d) negative reinforcement. Taking a painkiller to stop a headache is an example.
Which schedule of reinforcement makes behaviour most resistant to extinction
1. continuous reinforcement
2. no reinforcement
3. variable ratio partial reinforcement
4. fixed interval of one second
Show answer
Answer: (c) variable ratio partial reinforcement. Unpredictable rewards keep behaviour going, as in gambling.

All chapters of Class 11 Psychology

Written by Kundali IQ from standard, well-established facts to help with revision. This is not an official NCERT publication; always read your textbook too.