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Through the Eyes of Travellers – Class 12 History notes, important questions and MCQs

NCERT Class 12 History, chapter 5. Notes, key terms, important questions with answers and MCQs.

Chapter overview

Accounts of foreign travellers are an important source for understanding Indian society between the tenth and seventeenth centuries. Al-Biruni from Uzbekistan wrote Kitab-ul-Hind in Arabic in the eleventh century; Ibn Battuta from Morocco described the subcontinent in his Rihla in the fourteenth century; and the French traveller François Bernier wrote about Mughal India in the seventeenth century. Their observations reflect both what they saw and their own backgrounds and biases.

Al-Biruni

Al-Biruni came with Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni, learnt Sanskrit and wrote Kitab-ul-Hind, a detailed work on religion, philosophy, festivals, astronomy, social life and laws.
He noted barriers to understanding India, such as language, differences in religious beliefs and the self-absorption of local people.
He described the varna system using Sanskrit texts and compared it with other societies, though he disapproved of the notion of pollution.

Ibn Battuta

Ibn Battuta came to India in 1333 and served as qazi (judge) of Delhi under Sultan Muhammad bin Tughlaq; his Rihla is written in Arabic.
He described the coconut and the paan, the cities of Delhi and Daulatabad, which were densely populated and prosperous, and the efficient postal system.
He noted the presence of slaves, including female slaves employed in households and as spies.

François Bernier

Bernier, a French doctor, was in India from 1656 to 1668 and was associated with the Mughal court.
He compared India unfavourably with Europe, arguing that the absence of private property in land under the Mughal emperor harmed agriculture and peasants.
His ideas influenced later Western thinkers, such as Montesquieu's idea of oriental despotism and Marx's Asiatic mode of production, though historians show that land rights in India were more complex.

Key terms

Kitab-ul-Hind: Al-Biruni's Arabic work on India
Rihla: Ibn Battuta's travel account in Arabic
Qazi: a judge under Islamic law
Oriental despotism: the idea that Asian rulers had absolute power over subjects and land
Uluq and dawa: the horse post and foot post in Ibn Battuta's description of the postal system

Important questions with answers

Who was Al-Biruni?2 marks

Al-Biruni was an eleventh-century scholar from Khwarizm in present-day Uzbekistan who came to India with Mahmud of Ghazni, learnt Sanskrit and wrote Kitab-ul-Hind, a detailed account of Indian religion, philosophy, science, customs and society.

What did Ibn Battuta observe about Indian cities?3 marks

Ibn Battuta found cities such as Delhi and Daulatabad densely populated and prosperous, with crowded streets, colourful markets with a wide variety of goods, and music and dance. He noted that cities derived wealth from villages and trade, and he admired the efficient postal system.

Discuss Bernier's description of land ownership in Mughal India and its significance.5 marks

François Bernier, a French doctor who lived in India from 1656 to 1668, compared Mughal India with Europe, often presenting India as inferior. He argued that in Mughal India there was no private property in land and that the emperor owned all land, distributing it to nobles as jagirs that could be transferred. According to him, this meant that landholders had no incentive to invest in or improve the land, leading to the ruin of agriculture, the oppression of peasants and the decline of the economy, while a small ruling class lived in luxury. He also claimed that Indian society consisted of a mass of impoverished people and a wealthy elite without a middle class. Bernier's views influenced Western thinkers: Montesquieu developed the idea of oriental despotism, and Karl Marx used similar ideas in his concept of the Asiatic mode of production. However, historians point out that Bernier's account was shaped by his European perspective and his wish to warn France against absolute monarchy. Mughal sources show that land rights were complex: peasants had hereditary rights to cultivate, zamindars had rights to a share of revenue, and there was an active land market. Thus his account must be used carefully.

Quick revision

Al-Biruni: Kitab-ul-Hind, eleventh century.
Ibn Battuta: Rihla, fourteenth century, Tughlaq's court.
Bernier: seventeenth century, land ownership.
Travellers' views shaped by their backgrounds.

Exam tips

Make a table: traveller, country, century, work, key observations.
Note one bias in each traveller's account.

Practice MCQs

Kitab-ul-Hind was written by
1. Al-Biruni
2. Ibn Battuta
3. Bernier
4. Abul Fazl
Show answer
Answer: (a) Al-Biruni. He wrote in Arabic.
Ibn Battuta came from
1. France
2. Uzbekistan
3. Morocco
4. Portugal
Show answer
Answer: (c) Morocco. He travelled across Asia and Africa.
François Bernier was a
1. French doctor
2. Portuguese sailor
3. Persian poet
4. Mughal noble
Show answer
Answer: (a) French doctor. He was in India in the seventeenth century.
Ibn Battuta's travel account is called
1. Ain-i Akbari
2. Rihla
3. Kitab-ul-Hind
4. Akbarnama
Show answer
Answer: (b) Rihla. It was written in Arabic.
Ibn Battuta served as qazi of Delhi under
1. Alauddin Khalji
2. Muhammad bin Tughlaq
3. Akbar
4. Iltutmish
Show answer
Answer: (b) Muhammad bin Tughlaq. He arrived in 1333.
Al-Biruni came to India with
1. Muhammad Ghori
2. Timur
3. Babur
4. Mahmud of Ghazni
Show answer
Answer: (d) Mahmud of Ghazni. He came from Khwarizm in present-day Uzbekistan.
Bernier's main argument about Mughal India was that
1. private property in land was very secure
2. India was richer than Europe in every way
3. the absence of private property in land harmed agriculture
4. peasants owned all land
Show answer
Answer: (c) the absence of private property in land harmed agriculture. Historians question this view.
Which was a barrier to understanding India noted by Al-Biruni
1. language and differences in religious beliefs and practices
2. lack of temples
3. absence of books
4. shortage of food
Show answer
Answer: (a) language and differences in religious beliefs and practices. He learnt Sanskrit to overcome it.

All chapters of Class 12 History

Written by Kundali IQ from standard, well-established facts to help with revision. This is not an official NCERT publication; always read your textbook too.