Peasants, Zamindars and the State – Class 12 History notes, important questions and MCQs

Chapter overview

In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, about 85 per cent of the population of the Mughal empire lived in villages. Agriculture was the basis of the economy, and land revenue was the main source of state income. The Ain-i Akbari, written by Abul Fazl as part of the Akbarnama, is a key source on agrarian society. Peasants (raiyats), village communities, zamindars and the state were linked through production and revenue.

Peasants and agriculture

• Peasants were of two kinds: khud-kashta, who lived in the village where they held land, and pahi-kashta, non-resident cultivators who cultivated land elsewhere.
• Two main seasons were kharif (autumn) and rabi (spring); cash crops called jins-i kamil (perfect crops), such as cotton and sugarcane, were encouraged.
• New crops such as maize, tobacco, potatoes, tomatoes and chillies came from the Americas via Africa and Spain; irrigation used wells, tanks and canals, and the Persian wheel.

Village community and zamindars

• The village panchayat, headed by a muqaddam or mandal, regulated village life, maintained social order and sometimes represented villagers.
• Zamindars held superior rights to collect revenue and had milkiyat (private) lands; they had armed retainers and forts, and often mediated between peasants and the state.
• Women participated in agricultural work, spinning and other tasks; some women inherited zamindaris.

Land revenue system

• Land revenue was assessed and collected through officials such as the amil-guzar; the system included jama (amount assessed) and hasil (amount collected).
• Under Akbar, Raja Todar Mal developed the zabt system; land was classified into polaj, parauti, chachar and banjar according to cultivation.
• Forests and tribal areas were also linked to the state through trade, tribute and the supply of elephants and forest produce; the Ain-i Akbari provides detailed statistics.

Key terms

Raiyat

a peasant cultivator

Jins-i kamil

cash crops such as cotton and sugarcane

Zamindar

a person with superior rights over land revenue

Jama

the amount of land revenue assessed

Ain-i Akbari

Abul Fazl's account of Akbar's administration and empire

Important questions with answers

Quick revision

• 85% lived in villages; agriculture was the base.
• Khud-kashta and pahi-kashta; kharif and rabi.
• Panchayat and muqaddam; zamindars.
• Revenue: jama and hasil; Todar Mal; Ain-i Akbari.

Exam tips

• Learn the four land categories: polaj, parauti, chachar, banjar.
• Distinguish khud-kashta and pahi-kashta clearly.

Practice MCQs

1. The Ain-i Akbari was written by

   1. Badauni
   2. Todar Mal
   3. Abul Fazl
   4. Bernier
   Show answer

   Answer: (c) Abul Fazl. It is part of the Akbarnama.

2. A peasant cultivator was called a

   1. zamindar
   2. qazi
   3. amil
   4. raiyat
   Show answer

   Answer: (d) raiyat. Raiyats formed the majority.

3. The village headman was called the

   1. mansabdar
   2. muqaddam
   3. jagirdar
   4. subadar
   Show answer

   Answer: (b) muqaddam. He headed the panchayat.

4. Peasants who lived in the village where they held land were called

   1. khud-kashta
   2. pahi-kashta
   3. zamindars
   4. jagirdars
   Show answer

   Answer: (a) khud-kashta. Pahi-kashta lived elsewhere.

5. Cash crops such as cotton and sugarcane were called

   1. jins-i kamil
   2. polaj
   3. hasil
   4. milkiyat
   Show answer

   Answer: (a) jins-i kamil. The state encouraged them.

6. Land cultivated every year was classified as

   1. banjar
   2. parauti
   3. chachar
   4. polaj
   Show answer

   Answer: (d) polaj. Banjar was uncultivated for five years or more.

7. The difference between jama and hasil is that

   1. both mean the same
   2. hasil was a tax on trade
   3. jama was a crop
   4. jama was the amount assessed and hasil the amount actually collected
   Show answer

   Answer: (d) jama was the amount assessed and hasil the amount actually collected. They often differed.

8. Which statement about zamindars is correct

   1. they had no armed power
   2. they were always peasants
   3. they had superior rights over revenue, milkiyat lands and often armed retainers
   4. they were officials of the Portuguese
   Show answer

   Answer: (c) they had superior rights over revenue, milkiyat lands and often armed retainers. They mediated between state and peasants.